Ancient Philosophers

Philosophers at Miletus (Greek) tried to pick out the common identical elements (essentials) from the various processes of nature to arrive at a “first principle” to which all phenomena could be referred. This led to the concept of a primal substance, something fundamental which remains constant (unchanged) throughout all change. Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes established water, the infinity and air respectively as the fundamental principle. To the question, exactly which process transforms this so-called primal substance into its various derivatives? Thales seems to have no explanation; Anaximander gave moral explanation in terms of hot and cold (concept of Justice); and Anaximenes talked about the process of rarefaction and condensation to explain how one could get various derivatives from water.

Thales of Miletus
Anaximander of Miletus
Anaximenes of Miletus

 

Heraclitus

Anaxagoras

Atomists

Leucippus and Democritus are the founders of atomism. In fourth century B.C., their writings were re-edited in one and the same collection. As a result, they are generally mentioned together and it is very difficult to disentangle them. In addition, this led Epicurus to deny the historical existence of Leucippus. They believed that everything is composed of atoms, which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible that between the atoms there is empty space. In addition, atoms are indestructible; atoms always have been and always will be in motion. There is infinite number of atoms. Their point of view was remarkably like that of modern science, and avoided most of the faults to which Greeks speculation was prone.

Leucippus
Democritus 

Zeno of Elea (circa 490 BC)

Born: 495 B.C. Died: 430 B.C.

A pupil of Parmenides, who sought to expound his teacher's philosophy through a series of paradoxes intended to refute plurality and prove motion illusory. The Pythogoreans were his main opponents. Parmenides appears in the Platonic dialogue named after him.

Empedocles

Antisthenes
 
 

Born:  445 B.C.E. Died:  360 B.C.E.

Aristippus

Born:  435 B.C Died:  366 B.C.

He was born in Cyrene, North Africa.

His all writings are lost.
 

Diogenes

• Cynic Philosophers and Their Techniques, The  -- A analysis of the life of the cynics and their techniques of "parrhesia", excerpt from a seminar given by the French philosopher Michel Foucault in 1983.
• Day with Diogenes, A -- A fictional dialogue by Terry Ballard.
• Diogenes and Alexander -- Drawing by Honore Daumier (1842).  
• Diogenes of Sinope  -- His outstanding pupils were Thucydides, Euripides, and other Greeks.From the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Diogenes of Sinope -- Short biography and links by Colin Pringle.
• Diogenes of Sinope Forum Frigate  -- A forum to post questions about the cynic philosopher.
• Diogenes of Sinope -- Article and anecdotes about his way of life by Ben Best.
• Diogenes the Cynic  -- A few stories about "the Dog".
• Diogenes: the original Cynic -- Short biography from the Guardian Education archives.  
• Ethics of Isocrates, Aristotle, and Diogenes -- An article about his life and times by Sanderson Beck.
• Homeless Philosopher, The -- Article about his life and the principles of the Cynics.  
• Painting -- By John William Waterhouse (1849-1917) - Diogenes, 1882, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
   

Epicusrus

• Bartleby.com: Epictetus  -- Includes brief biographical note; E-text of the "Golden Sayings"; quotations.
• Epictetou Encheiridion  -- E-text o f the "Manual of Epictetus" by Arrian, translated by Sanderson Beck.

Lucretius
 

Born: 99 B.C.E. Died: 55 B.C.E.

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

Socrates
Plato
Aristotle

Theology/Religions

. Christianity

. Islam

Four Great Men (Creators of Science)

Copernicus

Chief Work: De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres).

The Copernican theory: The Sun (not the Earth) is at rest in the center of the Universe.
 
 

Kepler

Chief Work: Astronomia nova (New Astronomy), it contains Kepler's first and second law on elliptical orbits, but only verified for the planet Mars.

Galileo

Chief Work: Sidereus Nuncius (Message from the stars) it describes the astronomical discoveries he has made with his telescopes.

• The Galileo Project at Rice State U.

Newton

Chief Work: The Principia or Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). The Principia, recognised as the greatest scientific book ever written. The Principia presents his theories of motion, gravity, and mechanics. His theories explain the eccentric orbits of comets, the tides and their variations, the precession of the Earth's axis, and motion of the Moon.

Modern Philosophers

Niccolo Machiavelli

  Erasmus

• Erasmus Text Project   -- Latin and English texts
• Forum and live chat devoted to the life and works of Desiderius Erasmus.

Sir Thomas More
 

Born:  1478 Died:  1535

• Sir Thomas More (1478-1535)
• Thomas More Society
• The Trial of Sir Thomas More, 1535
• Thomas More
• St. Thomas More Web Page
• St. Thomas More Web Page

Giordano Bruno
 

Born: 1548 in Nola (near Naples), Italy Died: 17 Feb 1600 in Rome, Italy

Francis Bacon 
 

Born: Jan 22, 1561 in London Died: April 9, 1626 in London

• American Baconiana   -- Published by the Bacon Society of America in 1923.
• Bacon, F   -- Biographical information, e-texts, images, and links.
• Canonbury Tower Forum, The  -- A search engine, a chat room, and a study room.
• Creative Quotations from Francis Bacon   -- Quotations from the writer, with search links.
• Essays of Sir Francis Bacon   -- E-Texts.
• Francis Bacon   -- Brief biography with a link to the etext of "New Atlantis."
• Francis Bacon (1561-1626).   -- "A short discussion on the life and work of Francis Bacon."
• Francis Bacon Research Trust General Information   -- The Trust is concerned with education in the life and works of the secret master, Sir Francis Bacon, the Rosicrucians and other key exponents of the Ancient (and Ageless) Wisdom associated with him or having a bearing on his work.
• Great Works of Francis Bacon, The  -- Features a biography, essays, and assorted poetry.
• Top-Biography.com: Francis Bacon   -- Includes biographical sketch, listing of works, quotations, and a timeline of the writer's life.
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)   -- A Power Point presentation with concentration on Bacon's scientific philosophies.
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)   -- Covering the life, works, and resources, at luminarium.org.
• Sir Francis Bacon Meets The New Advancement of Learning   -- Bacon's life and work.
• Sir Francis Bacon Discussion Forum   -- Forum and live chat devoted to the life and works of Sir Francis Bacon.

Hobbes

• De Cive by Thomas Hobbes (1651)  -- Thomas Hobbes' classic work of psychology, morals, and political theory, in readable hypertext.
• Descartes' Meditations  -- Online Text in Latin and  in English translation.
• Hobbes - Biography(1588-1679)
• Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes -- Thomas Hobbes' classic work of psychology, morals, politics, and theology.
• Squashed Descartes  -- Condensed edition of Hobbes' response to Descartes' 'Meditatione,' with study notes and glossary.
• Thomas Hobbes -- Even more than Bacon, Thomas Hobbes illustrated the transition from medieval to modern thinking in Britain
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)  -- Biographical information.
• Thomas Hobbes Discussion Deck -- Discussion forum regarding the best books and criticisms of Thomas Hobbes.
• Thomas Hobbes Discussion Forum  -- Forum and live chat for discussing the life and philosophy of Thomas Hobbes.
• Top-Biography.com: Thomas Hobbes  -- Includes biographical sketch, an introduction to his philosophy and writings, quotations, and a timeline of his life.

Rene Descartes -- Founder of Modern Philosophy

• Catholic Encyclopedia: René Descartes (1596-1650)  -- Biographical article from the Catholic Encyclopedia.
• Descartes  -- Biography of René Descartes (1596-1650) from the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
• Descartes  -- A brief discussion of the life and works of Rene Descartes, with links to electronic texts and additional information by Garth Kemerling.
• Descartes Directory  -- Web directory of Rene Descartes, from projectlinks.org.
• Descartes' Epistemology  -- Article by Lex Newman from the Stanford Encyclopedia.
• Epistemology and Descartes   -- Class notes by Stephen Daniel, Texas A&M University.
• Medieval elements in Descartes  -- Part of lecture notes to a course on Later Medieval Philosophy by John Kilcullen at Macquarie University.
• René Descartes  -- Provides biography, works, quotations, chronology & images, from Top-Biography.
• Rene Descartes -- Brief outline on the life and achievements of Rene Descartes, the 17th Century French philosopher and mathematician
• Rene Descartes  -- Entry on Rene Descartes from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• René Descartes  -- Online texts at bartelby.com.
• Rene Descartes and the Legacy of Mind/Body Dualism -- Text by Robert H. Wozniak, Bryn Mawr College.
• Squashed Descartes  -- The condensed version of Descartes' Meditations, with study notes and glossary.

Spinozoa
 

Born:  November 24, 1632 Died:  February 21, 1677

• Baruch Spinoza  -- Critical entry on Spinoza by Kelley L. Ross. Part of the project of the Friesian School.
• Baruch Spinoza: encyclopedia article from Wikipedia  -- Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza entry at Wikipedia, a web-based encyclopedia
• Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy  -- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Baruch Spinoza, with biography and main elements of his philosophical thought.
• Benedict de Spinoza and Spinozism -Devoted to the doctrines of the Dutch philosopher and rationalist. Includes numerous links to texts, studies, and bibliographies.
• Björn's Guide to Spinoza -- Short biographical entry with some additional links to other Spinoza sites.
• Cooley Science Library's Spinoza Webliography  -- Links to websites with Spinoza content.
• Dedication to Spinoza's Insights, A  -- Personal page with links to Spinoza's electronic texts with commentary, a Spinoza glossary, and other Spinoza sites. By Joseph B. Yesselman.
• EpistemeLinks.com  -- Philosophy resources on the net: Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677).
• First Modern Pantheist, The: Spinoza  -- Outline of pantheism in Spinoza's philosophy.
• Garth Kemerling's Philosophy Pages: Spinoza  -- A brief discussion of the life and works of Baruch Spinoza, with links to electronic texts and additional information.
• Great Books Index: Spinoza  -- An index to online editions (HTML and text versions) of Spinoza's four main works.
• Malaspina Great Books: Benedictus de Spinoza  -- Spinoza links compiled by Russell McNeil.
• Philosophy Net  -- Links to numerous sites, including Spinoza sites.
• Spinoza Chronology   -- A chronology of historical events pertaining to Spinoza's life, philosophy, and cultural situation.
• Spinoza's Ethics  -- Brief summary of some aspects of Spinoza's moral philosophy.
• Spinozistic Glossary and Index  -- Glossary of Spinoza's definitions.
• Spinoza Net  -- A large site dedicated to promoting research, knowledge, and discussions about the works, reception, and contributions of Baruch Spinoza.
• Spinoza Net in Israel  -- Well-organized Israeli site dedicated to furthering research, knowledge, and discussion about the works, reception, and contributions of Baruch Spinoza.
• Studia Spinoziana  -- A Spinoza site with links to studies, translations, and other pertinent 17th century figures.
• Spinoza Web  -- A resource page for Spinoza enthusiasts.
• The Window: Baruch Spinoza  -- A short biography of the Dutch philosopher. Part of The Window, a clearinghouse for philosophy on the Web.
• UBA - Benedictus de Spinoza  -- University of Amsterdam's Digital Library by academic discipline: Philosophy. Benedictus de Spinoza. Includes important papers, bibliographies, and links.
• Works of Spinoza  -- Spinoza's writings, including: Ethics, On the Improvement of the Understanding, Theological-Political Treatise, Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being (Abraham Wolf translation), as well as a selection of Spinoza's correspondence.

Schelling, Friedrich
 

Born:  Jan 27, 1775 in Leonberg Died:  Aug 20, 1854 in Ragarz, Switzerland

• Schelling: A Lecture
• Schelling's System of Transcendental Idealism  -- Essay on Schelling's subjective idealism and philosophy of art, by Alex Scott.
• Schelling on Hegel  -- Schelling's speech opening the attack on Hegel in 1841.
• System of Transcendental Philosophy -- Text of Introduction to Friedrich Schelling's System of Transcendental Philosophy (1800).

Leibniz
 

Born:  July1,  1646 in Leipzig, Saxony (now Germany) Died:  Nov 14,  1716 in Hannover, Hanover (now Germany)

• Catholic Encyclopedia: System of Leibniz  -- A complete overview of Leibniz's work and views.
• Drôle de pensée   -- Hypertextual edition of a short writing concerning the diffusion and popularization of the scientific culture, by Leibniz.
• LEIBNIZ  -- Listserv electronic mailing list for discussion of Leibniz' philosophy.
• Leibniz - An Universal Philosopher  -- A resource page concerning G. W. Leibniz (1646-1716).
• Leibniz and Chinese Philosophy   -- At the same time as the Leibniz-Clarke Controversy developed, Leibniz was writing Discours sur la théologie naturelle des Chinois.
• Leibniz on the Problem of Evil   -- entry from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Leibniz Page   -- Includes biographical information and links (uses Java).
• Leibniz's Philosophy of Mind  -- entry from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Monadology, The  -- By Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, includes a glossary.

John Locke -- Theory of Knowledge, political Philosophy, Influence, etc.
 

Born:  Aug 29, 1632 Died:  Oct 28, 1704

• Economics 3LL3 -- Locke  -- Links to some of his works and a biography.
• John Locke --Biography.
• John Locke  -- Biographical entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• John Locke  -- Biographical information and an explanation of his ideas. From the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• John Locke  -- Biographical information.
• John Locke Bibliography  -- Listing of recent publications about the English philosopher.
• John Locke Biography - Top Cassette -- Life, works, philosophy, features, and quotations.
• John Locke Campfire Chat  -- A message board where discussions about John Locke and his works can be facilitated.
• John Locke Forum Frigate -- Discussion forum devoted to John Locke's life and works.
• John Locke Timeline -- A listing of events that were influential in Locke's life.
• John Locke's Works   -- A collection to John Locke's important writings, and a few links to some of his lesser known works.
• Locke Institute, The   -- An independent, non-partisan educational and research organization. Named after John Locke, the Institute ascribes to his theory that society is based on natural law and that the individual is the ultimate source of political sovereignty.
• Locke, John  -- A collection of facts about who Locke was and what he did.
• on John Locke -- A summarized look at the philosophy of John Locke, including a selection from his classic work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
• Philosophies of Locke and Rousseau, The  -- A critical look at Locke's philosophies in contrast with Rousseau's.
• Some Thoughts Concerning Education   -- Locke advocates the moral education of children, rather a pedantic focus on the mere acquisition of facts.
• Understanding John Locke  -- Biography and a look at his works.
• Who is John Locke  -- A concise biography of John Locke and overview of his philosophies.

George Berkeley

• Analyst, The -- The Analyst: a Discourse addressed to an Infidel Mathematician. Full text in HTML. 
• Berkeley Studies -- Extensive site by Peter Lloyd.
• Bishop George Berkeley  -- Page promoting George Berkeley's theological idealism.
• International Berkeley Society - The Society promotes all studies of the 18th-century Irish philosopher, George Berkeley, by organizing conferences and symposia, and publishing scholarly work. 
• George Berkeley  -- Some online texts at bartleby.com. 
• George Berkeley -- Provides essays and dialogues of Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. 
• George Berkeley -- Links page, includes texts available online.
• George Berkeley -- Offers history and theories of Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley.
• George Berkeley's Idealism -- Theological idealism rests on the thoughts of Bishop George Berkeley. For him, ontology grows out of epistemology since idea is the basic unit of existence.

Jean Jacques Rousseau
 

Born: June 28, 1712 in Geneva Died: July 2, 1778 in  Ermenonville (28 m. n.e. of Paris)

• Jean Jacques Rousseau  -- Online texts at bartelby.com. 
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau -- Biography and useful Rousseau and general philosophy links.
• Jean Jacques Rousseau -- Provides biography, works, quotations, chronology & images, from Top-Biography.
• Jean Jacques Rousseau Association  -- Biography, works and even music of this philosopher 
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau @ Episteme  -- Rousseau page at Episteme Links philosophy site. lots of links, plus a discussion list.
• Rousseau -- Brief biography from Bjorn's Guide To Philosophy.

Immanuel Kant

• All About Immanuel Kant: Andy's Carpenter's Kant World  -- Research, translations, external links, web bookstore for Kantians
• Andy Carpenter's Course Materials in Philosophy: Kant Syllabi  -- Systematic collection of links to syllabi, handouts, assignments, and other course materials.
• Bibliography of English Translations  -- Steve Palmquist's exhaustive list of English translations of Kant (current through July 1994)
• Could Kant have been a Utilitarian?  -- Provocative extract from the book Sorting Out Ethics by R. M. Hare.
• Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant  -- A readable HTML version of Kant's classic work of epistemology, psychology, and theology, at Philosophers' Valhalla.
• Critique of Practical Reason by Immanuel Kant  -- Translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott, from Philosophers' Valhalla.
• Glossary of Kant's Technical Terms  -- Short glossary with explanations to some kantian technical terms like transcendental, a priori or understanding.
• Immanuel Kant  -- Concise biography of Immanuel Kant with quotations and a chronology.
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)  -- Biography and overview of his philosophy.
• Immanuel Kant Discussion Deck  -- Forum and live chat devoted to discussing Immanuel Kant.
• Immanuel Kant Information Online  -- Marburg archive, German version
• Immanuel Kant Information Online  -- Marburg archive, English version
• Immanuel Kant Knowledge Products Audio Classics  -- Advertisement for and audiotape (narrated by Charlton Heston) about Immanuel Kant's life, his works and influence.
• Kant Bibliography  -- Bibliography of Kant's works and secondary literature.
• Kant-Forschungsstelle der Universität Mainz  -- English version
• Kant Lexicon  -- Short Kant-Lexicon with 17 entries.
• Kant Links   -- Links to work by and about the philosopher, Immanuel Kant
• Kant on the Web   -- external links, e-texts on Kant, e-texts of Kant
• Kant, Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven  -- Available in English and German.
• Kant: the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative  -- Kantian philosophy outlines the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative as a method for determining morality of actions. Investigate further here.
• Hippias - Limited Area Search of Philosophy on the Internet: Kant Search  -- Over 1,000 links to philosophical sites with entries on Kant
• Slice of Philosophy: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)  -- Brief information about life and works of Immanuel Kant.
• IX. International Kantkongress  -- Homepage of the Ninth International Kant Congress (Berlin, March 2000)
• North American Kant Society   -- NAKS Homepage
• Over 800 e-texts, articles, reviews, lectures, pictures, and study guides
• Philosophy Research Base: Immanuel Kant   -- links, e-texts, editorial review of recent books

Johann Gottlieb Fichte
 

Born:  May 19, 1762 Died:  January 29, 1814

• Johann Gottlieb Fichte - Biographical information as well as an introduction to the Science of Knowledge.
• The North American Fichte Society - The North American Fichte Society, a scholarly organization devoted to the study of Johann Gottlieb Fichte

Helvetius, Claude Adrien -- Book: De l'Esprit (1758)

Condorcet

Full name is Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat Condorcet

 

Born: 17 Sept 1743 in Ribemont, France Died: 29 March 1794 in Bourg-la-Reine (near Paris), France

G.W.F. Hegel

• Adorno, Theodor: "Negative Dialectics"  -- By Hegel, however, notably by the Hegel of the Philosophy of History and Philosophy of Right, the historical objectivity that happened to come about is exalted into transcendence: 'This universal substance is not the mundane; the mundane impotently strives against it. No individual can get beyond this substance; he can differ from other individuals, but not from the popular spirit.'
• Avineri, Shlomo  -- From Hegel's Theory of the Modern State, chapter 5: "Modern life and social reality." Uses some of Hegel's little known early works to analyze his view of property.
• Buchwalter, Andrew: "Remarks on Hegel's Philosophy of Law"   -- A study of the possibility of Hegelian constitutionalism. From the Paideia Project.
• Carpenter, Andrew: "An Hegelian Perspective on Liberalism and Communitarianism"  -- Discusses how Hegel's Philosophy of Right can advance the contemporary dialogue between liberalism and communitarianism.
• Carpenter, Andrew: "Hegel's Ethical Defense of War"  -- Explores and critiques the bases of Hegel's view of war, with particular reference to the Philosophy of Right.
• Cunningham, Gustavus Watts: "Thought and Reality in Hegel's System"  -- Online edition of a classic 1910 monograph. In hyperlinked HTML.
• De Araujo, Paulo Roberto Monteiro  -- How the Hegelian philosophy can contribute to the conceptual discussions between the two strains of contemporary ethical-political philosophy. From the Paideia Project.
• Derrida, J.; "Speech and writing according to Hegel"  -- "We shall here be interested in the difference of this narrowing, discovering on the way nothing else than a narrowing of difference: another name for the medium of the spirit."
• Ferrer, Daniel: "Hegel's Dialogue with Lesser Known Philosophers"  -- A brief study of Hegel's relation to assorted thinkers of the eighteenth and nineteenth century, such as Hamann and Jacobi.
• Findlay, J. N.; "Foreword to Hegel's Logic"  -- Foreword to the Oxford edition of Hegel's Shorter Logic by J. N. Findlay, translator of the Science of Logic.
• G.W.F. Hegel -- Social and Political Thought  -- The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Hegel, by David Duquette. Includes biography, bibliography, discussion of major aspects of Hegel's work, and a detailed study of the Philosophy of Right.
• Hegel by Hypertext  -- Extensive resource on Hegel and his works, with texts and commentaries.
• Hegel-Dialognet E-Mail List  -- A listserv dedicated to conversation about the philosopher's life and work. Public archive of messages.
• Hegel E-Mail List  -- The "Hegel" listserv, dedicated to exploring all aspects of Hegel's system. Public archive of messages.
• Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich  -- The entry on Hegel from the Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Extensively cross-referenced.
• Heidegger, Martin; "Hegel and the Greeks"  -- "How does Hegel present the philosophy of the Greeks within the horizon of his philosophy?" From the Conference of the Academy of Sciences at Heidelberg, July 26, 1958.
• Hegel Network, The  -- Essays and links to help understand, rethink, explain, sublate, and live the philosophy of G.W.F. Hegel. Includes bibliography, biography and texts.
• Hegel's Science of Philosophy  -- A set of resources dedicated to the greater understanding of Hegel's work. Includes several online courses, numerous articles, and research aids.
• Hegel Society of America   -- Information concerning upcoming Hegel conferences, Hegel e-mail lists, and the Society's journal, the Owl of Minerva.
• Hegel Society of Great Britain  -- News concerning meetings and conferences of the Hegel Society of Great Britain (HSGB), as well as information about the Society's biennial Bulletin.
• Hyppolite, Jean; "The Organisation of the Logic"  -- "Hegelian Logic is the absolute genesis of sense, a sense which, to itself, is its own sense, which is not opposed to the being whose sense it is, but which is sense and being simultaneously. This genesis resembles an organic growth, a perpetual reproduction and self-amplification. There is no external purposiveness, but an immanent purposiveness whose image in nature is organic life. The contradiction of this growth is its immanent intentionality; how can it grow?"
• Kojeve, Alexandre; "The Dialectic of the Real and Phenomenological Method in Hegel"  -- Chapter 1 of Kojeve's treatment of Hegel's system, "Introduction to the Reading of Hegel." An English translation from French, from the 1969 Basic Books edition.
• Kolb, David: "Before Beyond Function"  -- A detailed appraisal of Hegel's thinking on architecture, based primarily on Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics. Particular attention is paid to Hegel's preference for Classical over Romantic architecture.
• Maker, William; "Why Hegel is Not an Idealist"   -- "If we speak of 'what is living and what is dead' in Hegel, it is probably safe to say that nowadays, nothing is more dead than Hegel's philosophy of nature. I shall examine and question this diagnosis, contending that the Philosophy of Nature has been subject to a premature burial."
• Marcuse, Herbert; "Hegel's First System"  -- Chapter from Marcuse's 1941 Reason and Revolution explaining the earliest version of Hegel's Logic and Phenomenology.
• McTaggart; "Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic"   -- "Hegel's primary object in his dialectic is to establish the existence of a logical connection between the various categories which are involved in the constitution of experience. He teaches that this connection is of such a kind that any category, if scrutinised with sufficient care and attention, is found to lead on to another, and to involve it, in such a manner that an attempt to use the first of any subject while we refuse to use the second of the same subject results in a contradiction."
• Marx, Karl; "Critique of Hegel's Dialectic and General Philosophy"  -- "This is, perhaps, the place to make a few remarks, by way of explanation and justification, about the Hegelian dialectic -- both in general and in particular, as expounded in the Phenomenology and Logic, as well as about its relation to the modern critical movement."
• Ross, Kelly: A Popperian View   -- A critical view of Hegel's philosophy as a whole, with special reference to Hegel's philosophy of nature.
• Royce, Josiah; "The Hegelian Theory of Universals"   -- "The Hegelian theory of Universals is intended, of course, as the text has also shown, to offer a solution of the ancient question as to the reality of universals. What objective validity have our general concepts?"
• Sketch of Hegel's System - Includes a biography, a discussion of the differences between the systems of Hegel and Schelling, and a unitary overview of Hegel's thought.
• Stafford, Antoinette: "The Feminist Critique of Hegel"  -- A comparison of four feminist critics of Hegel, with an aim to a coherent treatment of the problem for feminism which Hegel represents.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry   -- A detailed account of the development of Hegel's doctrine through his various works. Composed by Paul Redding.
• Stojanow, Janko: "On the Absolute Rational Will"   -- An online book aimed at developing a contemporary philosophy which is true, through incorporating and sublating Hegel's philosophy.
• Study Guide to the Philosophy of History   -- Study notes from SparkNotes. Supplemented with a Hegel message board.
• Trejo, Paul E.: "Was Hegel Christian or Atheist?"   -- Explores Hegel's relation to Christianity, atheism and paganism in the light of the struggle between the Left and Right Hegelians. Presents a view of Hegelianism as a freedom-loving philosophy.
• 24th International Hegel Society Conference  -- To be held in Jena, Germany, covering issues raised by Hegel's 1802 "Faith and Knowledge." Features organizational and contact information, background. In German, English, French, Spanish and Italian.
• Olufemi, Taiwo: "Exorcising Hegel's Ghost"  -- Explores how the biases inherent in Hegel's works have brought about a mindset which excludes Africa from the history of human achievement. Based mostly on Hegel's Philosophy of History.
• Owl of Minerva Index   -- Alphabetical index of the past 25 years of articles in the Owl of Minerva, the official journal of the Hegel Society of America.
• Uchida, Hisorshi; "Marx's Grundrisse and Hegel's Logic"  -- Preface from new analysis of relation between Marx and Hegel. "I attempt to prove that the relation is more profound and more systematic than hitherto appreciated."
• Weber, Alfred  -- Chapter on Hegel from The History of Philosophy, translated by Frank Thilly.

Byron

Schopenhauer -- Principal Work: The world as Will and Idea (1818)

Born:  Feb 22, 1788 Died:  Sep 21, 1860

• Arthur Schopenhauer (1788- 1857) - Provides a biography, a brief discussion of Schopenhauer's Philosophie, links, and a message board.
• Arthur Schopenhauer 1788-1860 - Introduction to Schopenhauer's work with some excerpts from "Parerga and Paralipomena"
• Schopenhauer and Freud - Essay by Christopher Young and Andrew Brook from "International Journal of Psychoanalysis", 1994.
• Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Idea - Essay about motives of self-conflict in Schopenhauer's philosophy by Alex Scott.
• Schopenhauer, Arthur - Short article on Schopenhauer in Microsoft's Encarta.

John Stuart Mill
 

Born:  May 20, 1806 in Pentonville, London Died:  May 8, !873 in Avignon, France

• John Stuart Mill -- Article from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on the life and writings of Mill.
• On Liberty -  by John Stuart Mill (1869). Full text from Bartleby Library.
• John Stuart Mill --  British philosopher and economist. Full text of autobiography, and other works.
• Economics - Mill - Online text of The Principles of Political Economy by John Stuart Mill
• Representative Government - Full work in text format from EServer, based at the University of Washington.
• Study Place: Mill, John Stuart - Columbia University John Stuart Mill page.
• John Stuart Mill - Biographical details of Mill, as well as online texts of his Autobiography and his works, On Liberty and Utilitarianism.
• Squashed Mill -Condensed edition of Mill's 'On Liberty' with study notes and glossary.
• Principles of Political Economy - Full text in HTML format, presented by the Liberty Fund.
• John Stuart Mill - Provides biography, works, quotations, chronology & images, from Top-Biography.
• John Stuart Mill Forum Frigate - Discussion forum and live chat devoted to John Stuart Mill's life and works.
• Notes and questions on "On Liberty" made by an Oxford University student.
• John Stuart Mill Lecture Hall - John Stuart Mill message board and chat room, provided by Western Canon Great Books University
• ClassicNotes: On Liberty - Full summary and analysis of On Liberty by John Stuart Mill written by Harvard students, includes a biography, message board, and background information.

Herbert Spencer

• Herbert Spencer - Biographical information and an explanation of his philosophies. From the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Spencer's Works - A listing of all known works by Spencer and the full text of some of them.
• Photo of Herbert Spencer - Fairly large and of good quality.
• Development of Herbert Spencer's Concept of Evolution --A paper discussing Spencer's theory of evolution and how it differs from the Darwinian form.
• Spencer, Herbert -- An extensive look at his works and some biographical information.
• Works by and about Herbert Spencer -A listing of books in publication by Spencer and books written about him and his ideas.
• Everything Herbert Spencer - Entry for Spencer on Everything2. Lots of explanatory links.
• Spencer References - A listing of texts with information on Spencer and links thereto.

Nietzsche

• Twilight of the Idols - Abridged e-text.
• Pirate Nietzsche Page - Extensive page of organized philosophy links.
• Journal of Nietzsche Studies - Quarterly-published academic journal covering Nietzsche's philosophy.
• Friedrich Nietzsche Society - Founded in 1990. Sponsors a journal and a yearly conference.
• Björn's Guide to Philosophy - Nietzsche - Contains a biography, dated listing of his works, and links to published papers.
• Friedrich Nietzsche -Entry from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Existentialism and Friedrich Nietzsche - Includes a biography, essays, articles, photos, quotes and links.
• The Perspectives of Nietzsche -Highlights of his views.
• Nietzsche aphorism generator - Randomly displayed maxims from his works.
• On the Use and Abuse of History for Life -E-text of the Johnston translation.
• The Nietzsche Channel - Collected text in English and German with Nietzsche's music, correspondence and notes.
• Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) - Biography and synopsis.
• Nietzsche Campfire Chat -Featuring a lecture hall and chatroom.
• The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche - E-text of H.L. Mencken's synopsis of the philosopher.
• Nietzsche's Eternal Return - Links on Eternal Return in English and in German.
• Nietzsche's Telling the Truth About History - This essay discusses his views on history as related to current trends in historical studies.
• Nietzsche - E-text of the 1912 synopsis by Paul Elmer More.
• About Friedrich Nietzsche - Includes biography, versions of his books, and links.
• Human, All-Too-Human -Abridged e-text of the Zimmern translation.
• Nietzsche's Labyrinth - His books are archived here, with some other works.
• Twilight of the Idols -E-text of the Kaufmann/Hollingdale translation.
• Nietzsche Lighthouse - Forum and live chat devoted to discussing his life and works.
• The Dawn (or Daybreak) - Abridged e-text of the J.M. Kennedy translation.
• Nietzsche's Works - A collaboration of various sites to collect all available HTML versions in English in one website; all texts fully searchable.
• Friedrich Nietzsche - Biography with pictures.
• Thus Spake Zarathustra - E-text of the Common translation.
• Nietzsche T-shirts - A Nietzsche quote and a black-and-white drawing are on the front.
• Thus Spake Zarathustra -E-text of several versions from Project Gutenberg.
• Surpassing Man - A dialogue about the future evolution of Mankind.
• The Antichrist - E-text of the Mencken translation.
• Friedrich Nietzsche - A life and times of Nietzsche.
• Nietzsche - AOL site dealing with his influence.
• Nietzsche's Twilight of the Idols -Summary and analysis of the book.
• is Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche A comprehensive discussion using material from Thus Spoke Zarathustra.
• Our Pal Nietzsche - Discussion forum intended "for the übermensch at heart."
• The Nietzsche Channel -Nietzsche texts, links, BBS, and graffiti wall.
• The Nietzsche Page - Online resource from the USC philosophy department.
• Writings of  Fredrick Nietzsche

Karl Marx
 

Born:  May 5, 1818 born in Trier, Germany Died:  March 14,  1883 in London

• Astrocartography of Karl Marx's Least-aspected Mercury  -- Biography of Karl Marx with a special focus on how the planetary symbols of Mercury and Neptune were reflected in his life and work, by renowned astrocartographer Rob Couteau
• Björn's Guide To Philosophy - Marx  -- Includes links to several works by Marx, discussion lists and other links.
• Communist Manifesto   -- Etext at Project Gutenberg.
• Communist Manifesto, The  -- Discussion forums for posting questions, responses and comments about Karl Marx's political treatise.
• Full text of the Communist Manifesto -- by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels
• Karl Marx -- Biography with clickable time lines.
• Karl Marx, 1818-1883 --  Biography from The History Guide: Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History.
• Karl Marx and the Paris Commune  -- An analysis of the impact the Paris Commune of 1871 had on the revolutionary thinking of Karl Marx.
• Karl Marx Biography  -- Life, works, achievements, chronology, quotations of Karl Marx and analysis of his works.
• Karl Marx Discussion Forum -- Forum and live chat devoted to the life and works of Karl Marx.
• Karl Marx, Manifesto of the Communist Party  -- Online version of the text.
• Karl Marx: The Story of His Life  -- Biography of Karl Marx written in 1918 by Franz Mehring.
• Marx/Engels Internet Archive  -- Archive of Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels' writings, speeches and letters.
• Marx  -- Short biographical note and a list of links.
• Marx -- A brief discussion of the life and works of Karl Marx, with links to electronic texts and additional information.
• Marx's Theory of Money  -- The most important point to emerge from Marx's theory of money is the idea that money is a form of value. The difficulty with this idea is that we are more familiar with money itself than with value in other forms
• Marx's 1844 Manuscripts Hypertext  -- Karl Marx's most enigmatic text available online in hypertext form that follows the original pagination and layout.
• MarX-Files: Resources on Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels  -- An annotated web guide containing links to the major works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels as well as other Marxist resources.
• Philosophers : Karl Marx  -- Biographical notes from The Window -- Philsophy on the WWW Philosophers Section.
• Reflections on Karl Marx  -- A biographical lecture on Marx by Steven Kreis.
• Squashed Marx - Condensed edition of Marx and Engels 'The German Ideology' with study notes and glossary.
• SocioRealm Navigation Tool: Marx  -- Sociology resource center for students and professionals wishing to find relevant and up to date sociologcal resources on the net.
• What is Marxist Philosophy  -- Some citations and analyses of Karl Marx's political and philsophical writings.
• Workers of the World Unite  -- Information about Karl Marx and the Marx Memorial Library.

Henri Bergson

Croce

Eucken

William James
 

Born: Nov 11,1842 in New York City Died:  Aug 26 1910 in New York City

John Dewey

• Center for Dewey Studies  -- The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, with resources and texts.
• Democracy and Education, by John Dewey  -- Full chapter-by-chapter text, HTML format.
• Encyclopedia of Informal Education: John Dewey -- Brief biography, partial bibliography, and links.
• Imperialism Is Easy, by John Dewey  -- Essay by John Dewey published in The New Republic (March 23, 1927), critical of U.S. involvement in Mexico.
• John Dewey and F. Matthias Alexander -- Information and links relating to the influence of the Alexander Technique on John Dewey.
• John Dewey and the F. M. Alexander Technique -- Texts of Dewey's writings about the Alexander Technique.
• John Dewey Biography -- Provides biography, works, quotations, chronology & images, from Top-Biography.
• John Dewey Email Discussion List  -- Called Dewey-L, this is a forum devoted to John Dewey's philosophy. It is open to anyone interested in Dewey's philosophy.
• The School and Society, by John Dewey  -- Complete chapter-by-chapter text of his book.
• Review of Dewey's: Freedom and Culture -- Rough draft of a brief review of Dewey's book Freedom and Culture (1939).
• Review of Dewey's: The Quest for Certainty  -- A book review of Dewey's The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action (1929), by Alex Scott.
• My Pedagogic Creed  -- Essay by John Dewey outlining his theory of education. Progressive education in brief.
• Posture Commands: Why They Don't Work  -- F.M. Alexander's analysis of the futility of telling someone to stand up straight, as told by John Dewey based on his experience with the Alexander Technique.
• Pragmatism Cybrary, The  -- A research resource offering information on famous pragmatists, directories of centers and societies, philosophy lists, conferences, and publications.
• The Unknown Dewey  -- The philosophy of John Dewey, with emphasis on its relation to the Alexander Technique.

George Santayana

originally Jorge Augustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana

• Santayana -- Philosophy Books and Online Resources
• Santayana Edition, The

Bertrand Russell